Table 2 Reported exosome protein biomarkers for cancer diagnostic applications
From: Tumor-derived systems as novel biomedical tools—turning the enemy into an ally
Cancer type | Exosome Protein Markers | Function | Application | Ref | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Prognosis | Diagnosis | Therapeutic target | Disease monitoring | ||||
Breast cancer | EpCAM | Involved in tumor progression and metastasis | ✓ | ✓ | - | ✓ | [172] |
HER2 | Overexpression leads to more aggressive tumor growth and a poorer prognosis | - | ✓ | - | ✓ | [173] | |
CA 15–3 | Involved in tumor growth and metastasis | ✓ | [174] | ||||
PKG1 (Protein Kinase G1) | Plays a role in cell proliferation and migration. It also regulates estrogen receptor signaling | - | ✓ | - | - | [175] | |
Colorectal cancer | CD 147 (Basigin) | It activates PI3K/AKT, MAPK/ERK, and JAK/STAT signaling pathways to promote tumor development, invasion, and metastasis | - | ✓ | - | - | [176] |
CEA (Carcinoembryonic Antigen) | Activate recipient cell signaling pathways, especially the EGFR pathway, to promote tumor growth, invasion, and angiogenesis | ✓ | ✓ | - | - | [177] | |
CD 166/ALCAM (Activated Leukocyte Cell Adhesion Molecule) | Promote tumor growth and metastasis | ✓ | ✓ | - | - | [178] | |
CD 9 | CD9-positive exosomes play a role in the dissemination of CRC | ✓ | - | ✓ | ✓ | [179] | |
Ovarian cancer | HE4 (Human Epididymis Protein 4) | Modulates EGFR-MAPK signaling pathway to influence cancer cell adhesion, migration, and the growth of tumors | - | ✓ | - | - | [180] |
Mesothelin | Promote tumor development and metastasis | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | - | [181] | |
Lung cancer | EGFR (Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor) | Exosomal EGFR activates downstream signaling pathways to promote tumor growth and metastasis | - | ✓ | - | ✓ | [182] |
KRAS | Lung cancer often has KRAS protein mutations, which are implicated in numerous cellular signaling pathways | ✓ | ✓ | - | - | [183] | |
Rab3D | It activates AKT/GSK3β and induces cancer cell EMT, promoting invasion | - | - | ✓ | - | [184] | |
PSMA (Prostate-Specific Membrane Antigen) | It plays a role in the degradation of folate and is abundantly expressed during various phases of prostate cancer, particularly following a relapse in therapy | - | ✓ | - | ✓ | [185] | |
Prostate cancer | PCA 3(Prostate Cancer Antigen 3) | Regulates cancer cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis | - | ✓ | - | - | [186] |
CA 19–9 | It is produced due to abnormal glycosylation, a process commonly seen in cancer progression, resulting in the formation of various glycosylated residues | - | - | - | ✓ | [187] | |
Pancreatic cancer | MUC1 | It suppresses the immune response and promotes tumor growth. MUC1-expressing exosomes increase cancer cell migration, invasion, and angiogenesis | - | ✓ | - | ✓ | [188] |
AFP (alpha-fetoprotein) | AFP exosomes transfer oncogenic chemicals to promote tumor growth and invasion and suppress T cells and natural killer cells, which kill cancer cells | - | ✓ | - | ✓ | [188] | |
Liver cancer | ANGPT2 (Angiopoietin 2) | It promotes tumor growth and angiogenesis and is associated with increased aggressiveness, invasion, and tumor metastasis | ✓ | - | - | ✓ | [189] |