Fig. 8

Osteoimmunity-regulating hierarchical hybrid scaffold with excellent immunomodulatory, angiogenic and osteogenic properties for large-scale bone defect repair. a Schematic illustration of the preparation of PLA/HA framework integrated with DFO and MnCO nanomaterials in GelMA hydrogels and its osteoimmunomodulatory effects. b Surface characterization of PLA/HA scaffold sand GelMA/DFO/MnC composite hydrogel. c SEM images of DMGP hierarchical hybrid scaffold. d In vitro cytocompatibility of DMGP scaffold towards BMSCs via Live/Dead staining. e, f In vitro osteogenic activity of BMSCs on DMGP scaffold via ALP and ARS staining. g In vivo bone regenerative potential of DMGP composite scaffold in a critical-sized femoral bone defect model as confirmed by microCT reconstruction. h Histological evaluation (H&E staining) of new bone formation induced by DMGP scaffold at 4 and 8 weeks after surgery. Images reproduced from [36], © 2022 Wiley–VCH GmbH