Fig. 5

Bone regeneration effects of TSC-EVs on MSCs (A) Schematic representation of the experimental processes for rat calvaria bone-defect modeling with TSC-EV-treated MSC-laden scaffolds. Horizontal (B) and coronal (C) micro-CT images of calvaria bone-defect in scaffold, MSC, MSC + BMP2, and MSC + TSC-EV. The defect area (D) and diameter (E) of calvaria bone-defect were measured. Defect only of the skull bone was used as a control. F Representative fluorescent images of lamin A/C in MSC, MSC + BMP2, and MSC + TSC-EV laden groups. G The intensity of lamin A/C expression was determined by imageJ. Histological appearance of new bone formation within calvaria bone defects was analyzed by hematoxylin and eosin (H) and trichrome staining (I) in defect, scaffold, MSC, MSC + BMP2, and MSC + TSC-EV. The red line presented the boundary of the defect region. Scale bars, 1000 μm. J The percentage of histological stained area in defect regions determined with all groups. K Representative images of immunofluorescence-stained osteocalcin (green) in scaffold, MSC, MSC + BMP2, and MSC + TSC-EV. Scale bars, 10 μm. L Fluorescence intensity for osteocalcin was measured in each group. Data presented the mean values and SD from four to eight rat per group. (*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, and ***p < 0.001)