Table 2 Characteristics of bioprinting materials

Inorganic Biomaterials

Metals such as titanium and its alloys

High strength;

Low modulus of elasticity;

Low density

/

[61, 62]

Bioceramic materials

Biocompatibility;

Osteoconductivity;

Corrosion resistance;

High compressive strength;

Low tensile strength

Potential for long-term bone tissue implants

[63, 64]

Clay, hydroxyapatite, graphene, carbon nanotubes, etc

Mechanical Properties;

Printability

Biomineralization

[65, 66]

Synthetic Polymers

PCL

Biocompatibility;

Low biodegradation rate

Osteogenesis (compare with PLA)

[67, 68]

PLA

Good ductility;

Good stiffness;

Machinability;

Biocompatible;

Fast biodegradation rate

/

[69, 70]

PU

Biocompatibility;

High elasticity

Adjustable physicochemical properties and degradation rates

[71]

Natural Biopolymers

Alg

Low cost;

Biocompatibility;

Tunable rheological and mechanical properties

Adjusting the concentration can change the cell survival rate

[72,73,74,75]

COL

Easy Extraction

Printability;

Biocompatible

Mixing and cross-linking other biomaterials to modulate biological functions and mechanical properties

[76,77,78,79,80]

GEL

Biocompatibility;

High water absorption;

Biodegradability;

Non-immune;

Thermal responsiveness

RGD base sequence

Photosensitive materials prepared by methacrylating modification can be used for light-curing printing

[81,82,83,84]

HA

Biocompatibility;

Biodegradability

Differences in the mechanical and biological properties of hydrogels prepared from HA with different molecular weights

[85, 86]

SF

Biocompatibility;

Biodegradability;

Processability;

Good mechanical properties

β-sheet stacking structure, low viscosity and other characteristics hinder its application

[87,88,89,90]

CHO

Biocompatibility;

Biodegradability;

Antibacterial properties

Demonstrates healing-promoting ability in chronic wounds

[91, 92]

dECM

Biocompatibility;

Provides a cell-specific microenvironment;

Preserves some cell-specific functions

Compensate for the lack of mechanical and biological properties by dECM modification

[93,94,95]

Composites

PEG diacrylate + GelMA

Biocompatibility;

Good mechanical properties;

High resistance to degradation

High fidelity and tunable mechanical properties

[96]

CHO + COL

Biocompatibility

Printability;

Good mechanical properties

Adjust the mechanical properties and printability of bioprinting products by changing the gelation temperature

[97]

PLA + PCL

Good mechanical properties;

Biodegradability

Poor biocompatibility is still a difficult problem to solve

[98, 99]

HAp + GEL

Biocompatibility;

Good mechanical properties

Excellent shape fidelity; mechanical strength comparable to that of native bone; and enhanced bioactivity in terms of cell proliferation, attachment, and osteogenic differentiation

[100]