Fig. 2

Manifold adsorption mechanisms. a Amino acids and peptides, building blocks forming proteins, are bound to the IONPs surface mainly by the carboxylic group using three different mechanisms: ionic, monodentate and bidentate coordination [61, 77, 78]. b Carbohydrates attach to the surface via the hydroxyl, amino and carboxylic groups [79]. c DNA interacts with IONPs through the phosphate group [15, 49]. d Fatty acids use the carboxylic group to join to the nanoparticle [80], while phospholipids use the phosphate group (head) or the hydrophobic chain (tail) depending on the hydrophobicity of the surface [81]. Both form bilayers around the surface