Fig. 3

Apoptosis and necrosis as the core mechanisms of cell death in decellularization. Necrosis or apoptosis is the ultimate fate of cells upon the decellularization process. A Cell necrosis resulting from applying conventional decellularization techniques drives the vast leakage of immunogenic cellular materials, which invokes inflammatory responses following the implantation of derived scaffolds. B Apoptosis-assisted decellularization techniques exploit environmental stresses (extrinsic pathway) or death ligands to induce apoptosis. Following apoptosis, immunogenic cellular contents are degraded and confined to membranous vesicles that exert an immunomodulatory response